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TCP/ IP in Networking

2009-03-15T23:42:00.000-07:00

Internet Protocol Suite

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The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this standard. Today's IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANs (Local Area Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. used for the

The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.

The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122).^[1]^[2] From lowest to highest, these are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.

Application Layer
The Internet Protocol Suite
BGP · DHCP · DNS · FTP · GTP · HTTP ·IMAP · IRC · Megaco · MGCP · NNTP · NTP ·POP · RIP · RPC · RTP · RTSP · SDP ·SIP · SMTP · SNMP · SOAP · SSH · STUN ·Telnet · TLS/SSL · XMPP · (more)
Transport Layer
TCP · UDP · DCCP · SCTP · RSVP · ECN ·(more)
Internet Layer
IP (IPv4, IPv6) · ICMP · ICMPv6 · IGMP ·IPsec · (more)
Link Layer
ARP · RARP · NDP · OSPF ·Tunnels (L2TP) · Media Access Control (Ethernet, MPLS, DSL, ISDN, FDDI) · Device Drivers · (more)
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[edit] History

The Internet Protocol Suite resulted from work done by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. After building the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn was hired at the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across them. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.

By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design.

With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. One popular saying has it that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string." There is even an implementation designed to run using homing pigeons, IP over Avian Carriers, documented in RFC 1149.^[3]^[4]

A computer called a router (a name changed from gateway to avoid confusion with other types of gateways) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards packets back and forth between them. Requirements for routers are defined in (Request for Comments 1812).^[5]

The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the 1973–74 period, resulting in the first TCP specification (Request for Comments 675) ^[6]. (The early networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around the same period of time, was also a significant technical influence; people moved between the two.)

DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with TCP/IP v4 — the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today.

In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on January 1, 1983 when the new protocols were permanently activated.^[7]

In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.^[8] In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.

Kahn and Cerf were honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 9, 2005 for their contribution to American culture.

[edit] Layers in the Internet Protocol Suite

[edit] The concept of layers

The TCP/IP suite uses encapsulation to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Such encapsulation usually is aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level.

This may be illustrated by an example network scenario, in which two Internet host computers communicate across local network boundaries constituted by their internetworking gateways (routers).

TCP/IP stack operating on two hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop

Encapsulation of application data descending through the protocol stack.

The functional groups of protocols and methods are the Application Layer, the Transport Layer, the Internet Layer, and the Link Layer (RFC 1122). It should be noted that this model was not intended to be a rigid reference model into which new protocols have to fit in order to be accepted as a standard.

The following table provides some examples of the protocols grouped in their respective layers.

Application	DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC, NNTP, POP3, SIP, SMTP,SMPP, SNMP, SSH, Telnet, Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP
Application	Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over TCP/UDP, may also be considered part of the Internet Layer.
Transport	TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP
Internet	IP (IPv4, IPv6) ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6
Internet	OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol since it runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed on the Link since RFC 2740.
Link	ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP

[edit] Layer names and number of layers in the literature

The following table shows the layer names and the number of layers in the TCP/IP model as presented in widespread university course textbooks on computer networking used today.

	Forouzan ^[9], RFC 1188, RFC 1377, RFC 1663	Comer^[10], Kozierok^[11]	Stallings^[12]	Tanenbaum^[13]	Kurose^[14], RFC 1122	Cisco Academy^[15]	Arpanet Reference Model 1982 (RFC 871)
	Five layers	Five layers	Five layers	Four layers	Four layers	Four layers	Three layers
L5	Application	Application	Application	Application	Application	Application	Application/Process
L4	Transport	Transport	Host-to-host or transport	Transport	Transport	Transport	Host-to-host
L3	Network	Internet	Internet	Internet	Internet	Internetwork	Host-to-host
L2	Data link	Data link (Network interface)	Network access	Host-to-network	Link	Network interface	Network interface
L1	Physical	(Hardware)	Physical	Host-to-network	Link	Network interface	Network interface

These textbooks are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources^[16].

Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently regarding whether the Link Layer (and the four-layer TCP/IP model) covers physical layer issues or a "hardware layer" is assumed below the link layer. Some authors have tried to use other names for the Link Layer, such as Network interface layer, in effort to avoid confusion with the Data Link Layer of the seven-layer OSI model. Others have attempted to map the Internet Protocol model onto the seven-layer OSI Model. The mapping often results in a five-layer TCP/IP model, wherein the Link Layer is split into a Data Link Layer on top of a Physical Layer. Especially in literature with a bottom-up approach to computer networking, where physical layer issues are emphasized, an evolution towards a five-layer Internet model can be observed out of pedagogical reasons.

The Internet Layer is usually directly mapped to the OSI's Network Layer. At the top of the hierarchy, the Transport Layer is always mapped directly into OSI Layer 4 of the same name. OSIs Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and Session Layer are collapsed into TCP/IP's Application Layer. As a result, these efforts result in either a four- or five-layer scheme with a variety of layer names. This has caused considerable confusion in the application of these models. Other authors dispense with rigid pedagogy^[17] focusing instead on functionality and behavior.

The Internet protocol stack has never been altered by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) from the four layers defined in RFC 1122. The IETF makes no effort to follow the seven-layer OSI model and does not refer to it in standards-track protocol specifications and other architectural documents. The IETF has repeatedly stated that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant.

RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".^[16]

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how to installing windows 7

2009-03-15T03:33:00.000-07:00

To install Windows 7 on your Mac using Boot Camp you will need the following:

All firmware updates installed on your Mac (use Apple Button -> Software Update… to check)
A Windows 7 installation DVD
Your OS X Leopard installation DVD
At least 10GB of empty hard drive space on your Mac (you can probably get away with less but you’ll have almost no room to install anything other than the OS)
An hour if all goes well, up to 5 hours if not
Though not absolutely required, it’s a VERY good idea to have a complete and up to date Time Machine backup of OS X - it really came in handy for me. Because part of the process involves partitioning your drive, there’s always the distinct chance something will go wrong and everything will be wiped out.
Patience, possibly a great deal of it. Having a book handy will also help kill time during the partitioning, installing etc).

Installing Windows 7 via Boot Camp

Here goes. First thing - close absolutely every open program you can. That includes those things running in the Apple Menu that you always forget about. Don’t worry about killing the Dock or Dashboard - having those running is fine.
Now open a Finder and navigate to Applications -> Utilities and double-click Boot Camp Assistant.

Component	Requirement
Processor	• Minimum: 1GHz (x86 processor) or 1.4GHz (x64 processor) • Recommended: 2GHz or faster Note: An Intel Itanium 2 processor is required for Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems
Memory	• Minimum: 512MB RAM • Recommended: 2GB RAM or greater • Maximum (32-bit systems): 4GB (Standard) or 64GB (Enterprise and Datacenter) • Maximum (64-bit systems): 32GB (Standard) or 2TB (Enterprise, Datacenter and Itanium-based Systems)
Available Disk Space	• Minimum: 10GB • Recommended: 40GB or greater Note: Computers with more than 16GB of RAM will require more disk space for paging, hibernation, and dump files
Drive	DVD-ROM drive
Display and Peripherals	• Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher-resolution monitor • Keyboard • Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

If you are currently running:	You can upgrade to:
Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition (R2, Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2)	Full Installation of Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition Full Installation of Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition
Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition (R2, Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2)	Full Installation of Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition
Windows Server 2003 Datacenter Edition (R2, Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2)	Full Installation of Windows Server 2008 Datacenter Edition